Thorny Devil

Moloch horridus or the Thorny Devil

This is one of Australia's most interesting and unusual animals. People often mistake the Latin word horridus for meaning 'horrible' - it does in fact mean 'bristly'. This describes the lizard's erect stance, with the tail and head held high. The thorny devil eats only ants, usually the black ant variety. An adult animal can consume in excess of 2000 ants per day. Their stomachs are designed to tolerate the high acid levels of their chosen meal.

The thorny devil is a desert dweller, often found in areas with small pebbles as well as sand. In this environment the thorny devil's camouflage is perfect. As unappetising as this prickly little fellow might seem, there are many animals willing and able to make a meal of the devil.

To help in living in the desert there are some interesting adaptations in this little lizard's body seen nowhere else. The thorns all over the devil's body help the animal to stop water loss, somewhat like the desert dwelling cactus plants transforming their leaves into thorns, also to minimise water loss. When water is found, whether in the form of rain, a puddle, or drips of dew on a plant, the body of the thorny devil does not waste it. A unique adaptation for utilising this precious fluid is the system of grooves all over their body. Any water that touches their skin is moved via a capillary action to the animal's mouth.

Did you know...

• People often mistake the Latin word horridus for meaning 'horrible' - it actually means 'bristly'.
• The thorny devil eats only a few species of ant. An adult devil can consume more than 2000 ants per day.
• In the desert environment the thorny devil's camouflage is perfect.
• When water is found, whether in the form of rain, a puddle, or drips of dew on a plant, the grooves in the skin transport this water via capillary action to the animal's mouth.

Distribution of Thorny Devil in Australia:

As unappetizing as this prickly little lizard might seem, there are many animals willing and able to make a meal of the thorny devil.

Keeping and Breeding The Coastal Taipan (Oxyuranus Scutellatus)

Coastal Taipan: An Introduction

Text by Brian Barnett (Originally published in Thylacinus in 1986. Reprinted in Monitor Vol.10 Issue 2/3 1999)

The Coastal Taipan is one of Australia’s largest venomous and most dangerous snakes, occurring widely in northern Australia with an endemic sub-species in New Guinea (Cogger, 1983). In recent years its popularity in reptile collections has increased. Here in Victoria, we are more fortunate than some of our interstate counterparts in that private keepers are allowed to legally keep these reptiles.

Captives are alert and by snake standards appear to be highly intelligent. This paper has been written in response to repeated questions by colleagues in relation to my previous successes in breeding the species.

Coastal Taipan: Materials and Methods

Eight females and two males contributed to the breeding results of this paper, and throughout the tables are numbered for cross reference. An additional female (No. 9) was used to obtain the results in the section relating to growth rates.

Female 1. Collected from the wild as a gravid specimen, Rockhampton, Queensland, 1972. Female 2. Collected from the Cairns region, north Queensland, 1977. Female 3. Collected from the Cairns region, north Queensland, 1977. Female 4. Born Feb. 1978 from female 2 & male 2. Female 5. Born Feb. 1978 from female 2 & male 2. Female 6. Born Oct. 1980 from female 3 & male 2. Female 7. Born Oct. 1980 from female 3 & male 2. Female 8. Born Dec. 1981 from female 5 & male 1. Female 9. Born Dec. 1981 from female 5 & male 1. Male 1. Born Feb. 1978 from female 2 & male 2. Male 2. Collected from the Cairns region, north Queensland, 1977.

The adult snakes are housed individually in cages designed to maximize the use of the space available in a confined area. The design allows other cages to be placed on top and also offers a degree of safety without the normal top or front opening door or lid. The hinged lid is set at an angle of 45 deg. reducing the area of the front and top but resulting in a module with easy and safe access. See Figure 1 in Barnett (1978).

The floor area of each individual unit measures 60cm x 75cm, the height at the back is 90cm and the front height is 60cm. A viewing window, 20cm x 15cm, is fitted into the particle board lid.

Each new born clutch is housed in a series of three top opening cages each measuring 60cm x 48cm floor area x 46cm in height. A viewing window, 36cm x 18cm, is fitted into the lid.

Pre-washed fine aquarium gravel is used as the ground cover and regularly topped up as the soiled areas are scooped out. A rock of suitable size is also placed on the floor area to be of assistance in sloughing and to block the hide box entrance whilst cleaning.

A wooden hide box, floor area 45cm x 20cm and 15cm in height, is supplied in each adult unit. These have hinged lids. The newborns are supplied with upturned plastic cereal bowls with a small entrance opening cut out of the side. In particular with the young, the hide bowls are constantly used and the young seem far less nervous than those that were not given hide bowls in the past.

Similar plastic cereal bowls are used as the drinking water containers. They are of the stackable type which fit tightly into each other. One is fixed to the floor of eachunit and the other is placed within this one. It is easily removed and replaced as fresh water is supplied. The fixing of one bowl to the floor eliminates any possible upturning of the second bowl and subsequent spillage.

A plastic vent, 12cm x 7cm, is fitted into the lid or wall of each unit. No natural light is supplied and each unit receives daylight hours of lighting by means of incandescent bulbs (15 watt). However, the reptile house itself is fitted with 1.2m ‘True-Lites’ throughout and this provides additional lighting during daylight hours.

Heating to the adult units was initially supplied by 150 watt Infra-red globes. This was later changed to a series of three 40 watt blue coloured incandescent globes in each unit. The blue globes are used to keep the night time hours in relative darkness when these lights may be on. The heating lights are controlled by a thermostat and each unit maintains a temperature of 26 – 28 degrees Celsius. This temperature is maintained through the year and no seasonal changes are made.

Feeding of the adult snakes is year round and on average three times per month. Six mice or one rat to a weight of around 150gm is readily taken per feed. The newborns and sub adults are fed on a rotation system and depending on time and food available may be fed up to three times per week.

Results - Also See Images of Tables (At the end of this post)

The male is introduced to the female immediately following the sloughing of the female. In the adult snakes sloughing occurs six to seven times per year at intervals of 46-67 days, mean 58 days, giving adequate opportunities for introductions. Normally, copulation occurs within hours and continues for up to six hours. The male is removed following the completion of copulation.

The snakes have been successfully mated over seven months of the year from mid autumn, through winter and into mid spring. No matings have been achieved during the summer months (table 1(a) and (b).) although introductions were made. N. Charles records one mating in early December (Shine & Covacevich, 1983). The most productive period being late August – early September.

The age of the females at first introduction was varied but two individuals were first mated at 20 months of age when their total body length was approximately 2 metres. As the Taipan matures at a much smaller size than this, 78cm SVL for males and 101cm SVL for females (Shine & Covacevich, 1983) it should be possible to breed them at an even earlier age. I have achieved the maturity sizes documented by Shine & Covacevich (1983) with several specimens at five to seven months.

A second mating for the year was recorded for three individual specimens. The previous matings were all early in the mating range, months four, five and six, and the duration between matings was 134, 77 and 93 days. The second matings were all achieved in the more regulation period of late winter, early spring.

Coastal Taipan: Egg-Laying

The eggs are laid in the hide box 11-14 days following the pre-laying slough, a feature also observed at the Melbourne Zoo (Banks, 1983).

No nesting material is provided and the female coils tightly, creates a shallow depression in the gravel and commences laying. I have been present for most of the layings and the majority of eggs have been removed individually, with a spoon scoop, with the female showing little concern in this intrusion.

The laying of five individual clutches were recorded for periods between egg laying. Depending on the size of the clutch and the number of smaller infertile eggs, which were deposited at a faster rate, the laying period ranged from six hours 16 minutes to seven hours 58 minutes. The mean period between individual eggs of the five clutches was 29.4 minutes (23-37).

Two clutches, from the one mating, were recorded from two individual specimens (Table 2), indicating sperm retention, a phenomenon also recorded by other herpetologists (Peters, 1972; Banks, 1983). The inter-clutch periods were 66 and 69 days. The fertility rates were 44 & 75%. The period from copulation to oviposition in all but one instance ranged from 61-85 days, mean 69 days (Table 2).

Clutch No. 19 was laid 155 days following the only observed mating. Although a male was present in her cage for several days up to 82 days prior to her laying, no indication of attempted mating was observed and under the conditions that they are kept, the period over which copulation occurs and my regularity of checking such introductions, I believe that this laying would be the result of sperm retention from the earlier observed mating. The female had not been bred previously and had shown no signs of being gravid in the expected period from the observed mating. It did not come up for its pre-laying slough anywhere near the time that it would have been expected in the range after the observed mating. It also laid well outside the range of  all other clutches (February) and in normal circumstances this would be the result of a summer mating, the period in which I have not recorded any matings or the males having shown any interest in the females.

The following data on eggs of Oxyuranus scutellatus has been determined from Table 3.

• Mean clutch size: 14 eggs (9-20).
• The fertility rate was 78% (40-100).
• Mean (fertile) egg length per clutch at oviposition: 56.4mm (47.6 – 65.8), n = 16.
• Mean (fertile) egg diameter per clutch at oviposition: 32.4mm (29.4 – 34.8), n = 16.
• Mean (fertile) egg weight per clutch at oviposition 32.9gm (24.2 – 36.7), n = 13.

Coastal Taipan: Incubation

The eggs are incubated in clear top plastic bread containers using vermiculite as the medium (Barnett, 1981. 100ml of water is added to 150g vermiculite giving the medium a depth of 3cm in the container. A fine spray of water is added at a future date if required. The relative humidity is kept high. The temperature range during incubation is 29.5 – 32 degrees Celsius.

Coastal Taipan: Hatching

Pre-hatch measurements and weights (1-2 days before slitting) were taken of six clutches and although minimal, all but one clutch registered weight loss. The clutch with the weight gain averaged 0.4g/egg. Weight losses per clutch varied from 1.4-5.0g/egg. Lengths varied from a gain of 0.5mm to a loss of 0.6mm/egg. The diameter varied from a gain of 0.7mm to a loss of 0.5mm/egg.

Five completed clutches were not incubated. Several were not required whilst others were used to photograph and collect embryos at varying stages and experimenting with the open egg in a humicrib (Barnett, 1980).

The incubation periods ranged from 62-71 days (n=15), mean 67. The percentage of eggs hatching from those placed under incubation ranged from 67-100% - mean 94% (n=15).

Upon slitting the eggs the young snakes usually emerge within 1-2 days. The young were weighed and measured at birth and all clutches are summarized in Table 4. Clutch #8 was the exception in size and weight and several of the very low weight range in the other clutches were found to have encountered restrictions on food supply with in the egg. The tail measurements of the young averaged out to 15% of the total body lengths.

Coastal Taipan: Rearing of Young

Each clutch of young is housed in a series of three cages as described in ‘Materials and Methods’. The middle cage is only used for feeding and the snakes are offered food individually. As one snake is moved from one cage, is fed in the middle cage and is then moved onto the other end cage. This is repeated until all the young have been fed and the next feed is a transfer back to the other end. Stubborn feeders can be left in the feed section overnight. I have found this rotation system to be very effective with raising young and can save valuable time whilst maintaining a large collection.

The young Taipans prefer moving prey and many have been reluctant to accept day old mice whilst readily accepting pre-weaner mice. The average sized hatchling Taipan is quite capable of eating a mouse up to 10gm in weight. Unlike the snap and release action of the adult snakes, the young attain a firm grip on the mice. This action may continue for a month or so when it changes to the snap and release method.

With few exceptions, the young snakes have been exceptionally good feeders once offered the larger mice. Force feeding had to be applied to the occasional undersized young but generally only for a short period.

Coastal Taipan: Growth

Growth can be extremely rapid and it was quite common for my specimens to exceed 1.7 metres (total) at 12 months of age and 2.1m at 24 months of age.

The following tables relate to the growth of one individual over a three year period. All food was weighed before it was offered as a feed. The snake was measured at regular periods over the first 14 months and less regularly over the latter period. The snake was starved for a short period before weighing to ensure accurate body weights. The number of sloughs and the period between them were also recorded.

The Coastal Taipan, Oxyuranus scutellatus, is the largest species from the elapid family of snakes in Australia. Some texts say it grows to over 300cm. Worrell (1963), for example, notes, “. . . Length may exceed ten feet; six feet is average”. However, none of the many specimens held in museum collections in Australia exceeds 300 cm.

Professor Rick Shine, University of Sydney, measured all the Coastal Taipans in museum collections in the early 1980s. The largest one, a male, had a snoutvent length of 226 cm. This would have a total length of about 260 cm. No new extra-large Coastal Taipans were lodged in Australian museum research collections untill ‘Terrence’ died.

Terrence was the ‘pet’ of Joe Sambono Jnr, a friend to herpetologists from the Queensland Museum. Terrence, with a snout-vent length of 242.5 cm and a total length of 290 cm, died after seven and a half years in captivity. He had been raised ‘out of the egg’, by Joe. Joe was very sad that Terrence had died. However, Joe’s curatorial friends at the Museum were elated to receive such a large specimen, when one was needed for the public display programme. When Terrence died, he weighed 6.2 kg. At 290 cm, he was the largest Coastal Taipan whose length was measured, not just estimated. The measurement can be checked by anyone interested, because the specimen is in the research collection of the Queensland Museum.

At the Queensland Museum, Terrence was moulded and cast in a life-like pose for display. The cast, painted in exquisite detail by museum preparator Alison Hill, is now a feature of the exhibition, “Wildlife of Cape York Peninsula”. This can be seen in the Cooktown Interpretive Centre, overlooking the restored, historic botanic gardens in Cooktown, north-eastern Queensland.

The Victorian Herpetological Society would like to thank the owner of the snake, Joe Sambono (pictured here with Terrence), the photographer, Simon Fearn and the Queensland Museum for allowing us to use material from their site.

The taipan is one that was bred by Brian Barnett and supplied to Joe Sambono.

Acknowledgments

Keith Day ‘introduced’ me to the Taipan many years ago when I lived in Queensland. Roy Pails of Ballarat loaned me one of the breeding males when requested. Chris Banks of the Royal Melbourne Zoo gave advice when asked. Bruce and Keiron Howlett retyped the manuscript at short notice. I particularly thank my family Lani, Brett and Ty who have given up so much to allow me to pursue my interests in herpetology to such a degree.

Literature Cited

Banks, C.B. 1983. Breeding the Taipan at the Royal Melbourne Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook. 23. Barnett, B.F. 1978. Taipan. Newsletter of the Victorian Herpetological Society, 9:16-20. Barnett, B.F. 1980. Captive breeding and a novel egg incubation technique of the Children’s Python (Liasis childreni). Herpetofauna 11(2):15-18. Barnett, B.F. 1981 Artificial incubation of snake eggs. Monitor 1(2):31-39. Cogger, H.G. 1983 Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia (Revised Edition) A.H. and A.W. Reed. Sydney. Peters, U. (1973) Breeding of the Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus) in captivity. Bull. Zoo Man. 4(1):7-9. Shine, R. and J. Covacevich (1983) Ecology of highly venomous snakes: the Australian genus Oxyuranus (Elapidae). Journal of Herpetology, 17:60-69.

Table Results (images):

Table 1A-1B and Table 2

Table 3 and Table 4

Table 5 and Table 6

The Coastal Taipan is a hardy snake in captivity and provided due respect is given to this extremely alert snake no unusual problems should be encountered.

Darwin Carpet Python

Morelia spilota variegata or the Carpet Python

Did you know...

• Darwin carpet python dwells across the north ofAustralia.
• Carpet python is common in urban parts of Darwin.
• Adult Darwin carpet python eats mainly mammals, such as rats and possums.
• Juvenile carpet python eat mainly lizards, such as skinks and geckos.

Where Darwin Carpet Python can be found in Australia:

Juvenile carpet python eat mainly lizards, such as skinks and geckos.

Rainforest Dragon

Hypsilurus spinipes or the Rainforest Dragon

This fierce-looking rainforest dragon lives in warm temperate rainforest and sclerophyll forests along the mid-eastern coast of Australia. They feed on insects and spiders, which they hunt ambush in the canopy, on tree trunks and vines, or the forest floor. Rainforest dragon drink from the water that runs down branches when it rains. The water runs into the lizard's mouth via gravity, requiring very little effort from the dragon.

Groups of up to 20 rainforest dragon have been observed in the wild. It is thought that these aggregations are associated with breeding - either mating or egg laying. Males have been seen taking part in a ritual combat involving standing high on straightened legs, inflating the body and throat with air, opening the mouth and circling each other. Between December and January the female will lay 2 to 7 eggs in a burrow she's dug in loose soil.

Did you know...

• This fierce-looking rainforest dragon lives in warm temperate rainforest and sclerophyll forests along the mid-eastern coast of Australia.
• Groups of up to 20 animals have been observed in the wild. It is thought that these aggregations are associated with breeding - either mating or egg laying.
• Males have been seen taking part in a ritual combat involving standing high on straightened legs, inflating the body and throat with air, opening the mouth and circling each other.

Where to find Rainforest Dragon in Australia:

Rainforest dragon feeds on insects and spiders, which they ambush in the canopy, on tree trunks and vines, or the forest floor.

Kids & Reptiles

Kids and reptiles! Can they mix and should they mix?

by Kerrie Alexander

In my opinion yes and sometimes no. In this article I will express some ideas and tips on how to keep the harmony with our kids and reptiles, and also perhaps when we should draw the line.

In my experience with demonstrating reptiles to children I have found 80% are keen to touch and are waiting with lots of questions. This is, of course a fantastic learning experience, but like most things children need some guidance. They need to be shown how to treat and hold the animals in order to understand how these little creatures work.

Usually the children are set some basic rules. These rules are easy for them to understand and are always said in a positive way.

Kids and Reptiles: Examples of rules for children when handling reptiles are as follows:

* Only touch the back, tail or tummy, as they do not like to be touched on the face. (If asked why? we simply ask if they liked being touched all over the face by a stranger, no is usually the answer.) Facing the animal with its tail towards people is the best way to solve this.

* Make sure you support the animals’ legs when holding and do not squeeze, just let them sit or slide through your hands.

* Never poke the animal or do anything that you yourself wouldn’t like.

* Make sure you wash your hands after touching the reptiles.

There is always the other 20% of children who don’t feel comfortable holding or touching the animals - they prefer to just look and this is fine.These children can still learn a lot and sometimes they just need a bit more time to watch you hold the animal and understand them before they feel comfortable. I actually prefer this as I know that they will respect the animal and have some understanding of it. This is better than the children diving in and maybe hurting the animal because they have not listened.

There are times when lines are drawn and strict rules need to be in place. Examples of this include instances when venomous snakes or larger, more dangerous animals such as goannas are being shown. Of course when demonstrating venomous snakes and some larger goannas, the animals should only be touched by or come close to the demonstrator.

When keeping venomous snakes privately they should always be housed in a locked enclosure, off the ground and out of the child’s reach. One effective system used by many keepers to clearly identify potentially dangerous animals is the colour system. A sticker or coloured piece of paper is placed on every enclosure that contains an animal. Dangerous animals are identified by a red sticker, while harmless animals have blue or green. Red, even to the smallest child is associated with hot, stop, dangerous etc and therefore clearly identifies the animals children should never try to touch. Blue or green are associated with calming, go, cold etc. and children can therefore recognize harmless animals.

My daughter, Chloe, 5yrs, has shown a fantastic interest and respect for reptiles. We have been lucky that she keeps a safe distance and obeys our rules when dealing with venomous snakes and their removal. Such a thing cannot be expected by every child and each needs to be assessed individually if they are to come close to these animals. I do not promote or encourage venomous snakes and children to mix.

Reptiles can be a fun and exciting experience for children and encourage responsibility along with a greater understanding of our native animals and how they live.

Kids and Reptiles: The best first reptiles or invertebrates for children are:

• Blue tongue lizards
• Shingle back Skinks
• Bearded dragons
• Long neck Turtles
• Children’s Python or equivalent
• Green Tree Frogs
• Stick insects

These animals can be obtained through your local breeder or pet store. No animal should be taken from the wild.

When there's knowledge and patience, kids and reptiles can get along just fine.

A Beginner’s Guide to Keeping Turtles

Keeping Turtles: An Introduction

A decade ago or more, except for a handful of pioneering enthusiasts, genuine breeders were virtually non-existent. Their patience, improved husbandry techniques and record keeping has paid off. Many of the commonly encountered problems are rarely seen today, and captive breeding is a regular event on the calendar. Today we are able to enjoy the determination and achievements of past and present enthusiasts, with freshwater turtles being one of the more commonly encountered reptiles maintained in private collections throughout Australia. Given a few simple requirements, freshwater turtles are easy to maintain in captivity and require less time and space than other animals such as cats and dogs. Because turtles are less demanding than other companion animals, parents find them a great learning tool for children. Kids love turtles, and the responsibility of owning a turtle prepares them for life’s greater responsibilities.

Keeping turtles in captivity is an exciting, and sometimes contagious experience for both children and adults. Kids even get enjoyment out of feeding “Dads” turtles. The responsive, and sometimes comical, interaction with the keeper has its own rewards that can only be shared by other enthusiasts. The benefits of owning such an animal are many and varied, in fact some of Australia’s finest herpetologists began their interest in reptiles with a pet turtle. The information gained through captive husbandry greatly improves our understanding of biodiversity, and knowledge of the biology and conservation of the species. But you don’t have to be a budding young herpetologist to own a turtle, for some people the therapeutic value of relaxing in front of the aquarium is enough. Turtle enthusiasts, regardless of the size of their collection, find their hobby as equally rewarding as those people who rock climb, race cars, listen to music, paint pictures or collect stamps. The value of their hobby is important to themselves

This beginners guide should answer many of the common questions asked by novices, and thus improve husbandry standards for keeping turtles. This guide should not replace a good book on keeping turtles, or be a substitute for advice from experienced turtle enthusiasts and veterinarians. We all have our own techniques, however the basics are very similar. This guide is based on 25 years of intensive turtle husbandry and research by the author.

Keeping Turtles: Outdoor Ponds

Outdoor ponds provide turtles with access to natural sunlight and foods that may wander into the enclosure. An outdoor enclosure also gives the turtle more space than can generally be provided in an indoor enclosure. The strongest type of pond, and most permanent, is the concrete pond. Alternatively pre-made fibreglass or plastic come in a range of sizes, shapes and prices. These can be buried to ground level.

Ponds should be a minimum of 500mm deep to reduce overheating in summer or freezing in winter, and as large as possible. The pond should be constructed in such a way that the turtle can easily get out of the water and bask on the surrounding land area. A plank may be beneficial for the turtles to bask on, or act as a ramp out of the water. The turtles should have access to both sunlight and shade at any time of the day.

Enclosure walls are typically made from corrugated iron, tin, cement sheet, smooth walled brick, or wire netting, with a wire mesh roof. This obviously prevents your turtle from escaping, but also keeps unwanted predatory animals out. Ensure that rocks, logs, branches, grasses and small shrubs are not used as a ladder to escape over the walls, as most turtles are good climbers despite their somewhat cumbersome appearance.

Keeping Turtles: Indoor Enclosures

Glass aquariums are one of the most common enclosures in which to house turtles indoors. They should be of adequate size so that overcrowding does not occur, ensuring that individuals don’t bump into each other as they swim. As an alternative, fibreglass or plastic containers of an appropriate size, also make good enclosures. Farm feeder troughs are ideal as they are much larger than the smaller tubs found in some stores. If you use decorations, like rocks or timber, be sure that the turtle cannot dislodge the furnishings or wedge itself, which may result in drowning.

A land area such as a platform or similar shelf must also be provided for the turtle to leave the water and bask, and thereby dry itself completely. The size of the platform depends on the turtle and as a general rule all the turtles in the enclosure should be able to sit comfortably on the platform. The platform may be siliconed or sat in position, then covered with carpet grass for a more natural appearance, a small ramp may also be fastened in place with silicone to make an exit from the water much easier for the turtle. Carpet grass, or some other type of plastic mat, may extend down the ramp, alternatively, beads of silicone may be used as a ladder for turtles to exit the water. An advantage of the shelf is that turtles can swim underneath, thus maximising the amount of space in an aquarium/tub.

Keeping Turtles: Lighting and Heating

Turtles that are maintained indoors will need an artificial light and heat source to provide a day/night cycle. One cannot underestimate the importance in quality of light for turtles, especially those which are housed indoors. Lighting which is specially manufactured for reptiles is generally termed full spectrum lighting and provides reptiles with beneficial light waves, similar to that of the sun. The lights should not be too high in UV output as this can be detrimental to the turtle’s health, such as burning the eyes. A light bulb over the land platform will help raise the air temperature and when placed above the land area it doubles as a basking light which helps stimulate natural behaviour patterns. The water temperature should be maintained between 22 to 28oC, with the air temperature a few degrees higher, depending on the species. The temperature can be dropped a few degrees over winter.

Keeping Turtles: Water Quality

When it comes to water quality, whether it be a pond or an aquarium, the primary concern for most turtle keepers is keeping the water clean, odourless and clear. This may be done using a good filtration system, weekly water changes and regular monitoring of water quality. If the water is unable to support fish then it is also unsatisfactory for turtles, therefore, the basic aquarium principles that apply to keeping fish are relevant to keeping turtles. This means monitoring pH, hardness, ammonia, nitrates and keeping the water oxygenated. Turtles tend to produce more waste material than other aquatic animals such as fish, so regular water changes will be needed. The water will also need to have a good quality filtration system, one that can handle the damage incurred by turtles.

Keeping Turtles: Feeding

The amount of food offered to turtles can be difficult to judge, as most are opportunistic feeders and will gorge themselves in anticipation of the lean times ahead. Turtles should not be over fed as this may lead to obesity or other diet related disorders. Most turtles often swim frantically towards you when you walk into the room, this is often interpreted as the turtle begging for food or being hungry, and as tempting as it may be, do not offer food unless it is feeding time. Feeding time should be done two to three times a week, depending on how active your turtle is. As a guide, offer the turtle a portion of food about the size of its head at each feeding.

The best foods to offer turtles should consist of plant material such as algae, Vallisneria, Elodea, water cress, duckweed, alfalfa, swiss chard, non-fibrous greens, celery tops, cabbage, spinach, kale, lettuce (darkly coloured), squash, tomato, sweetpotato, pumpkin, zucchini, corn, dried (dehydrated) or fresh fruits (eg. figs, melons, apples, peaches). Likewise, turtles will readily eat beetles, bugs, crickets, daphnia, dragonflies, earwigs, fish, flies, grasshoppers, mice, moths, mussels, nymphs and larvae, shrimps, slaters, snails, spiders, water boatmen, worms, yabbies, non-fatty meats and organ meats (eg. chicken or ox heart and liver), tinned dog or cat foods, dry dog or cat food (soaked or un-soaked), fish flakes, trout pellets, yabby pellets and commercial reptile foods.

It will be necessary to supplement foods like meat with vitamins and minerals, particularly for turtles kept indoors. Multivitamins can be sprinkled over, or packed into the food and are available pre-packed (eg. ZooMed Reptivite®, Herptivite®, Nekton-Rep®). Varying the diet as much as possible will help to provide a broader range of vitamins and minerals to your turtle and reduce the risk of nutritional disorders.

Keeping Turtles: Ailments and Disorders

The majority of ailments and disorders affecting captive turtles usually result from improper husbandry. Some examples include insufficient heat and light, being fed in cold conditions, dirty enclosures and putrefied water (eg. faeces, rotten food, etc), contact with other sick animals, and injuries. Early stages of ailments can be determined by careful observation. If your turtle is routinely inspected then you will recognise changes from normal behaviour. Treatment needs to be provided as soon as a problem is noticed, before it becomes too advanced. As with any ailment or disorder, a veterinarian should always be consulted for positive identification.

An experienced reptile veterinarian will usually discuss your husbandry before embarking on any course of treatment, especially with keeping turtles.

Speaker Tania Carter - Cool Companions

The lesson from the talks of Tania Carter is that, as gardeners, it is our duty to plant native plants to provide habitat and food for our unique wildlife.

Tania Carter gave a fascinating talk about our local native animals.  Tania brought a number of her "Cool Companions" with her and gave members the opportunity for a hands on experience.

Tania Carter talked about how to encourage these creatures into our backyards.

Tania Carter began with the bearded dragon.  These reptiles are good for gardens as they love to eat insects and grubs.  If you pick a dragon up it will stiffen and fill up with air as a defense.  The balance of lizards in our gardens has changed.  Originally the frilled necks were common, but with development, they died out, probably due to the fact that they are easily stressed.

As a result, the bearded dragons became dominant but now it is the larger water dragons, who adapt better and eat a greater variety of food than the bearded dragons.

The bearded dragons lay eggs, and while gardening they may be dug up.  If this happens put them back in the same spot.  If possible, try not to turn the eggs or the embryo, which is fixed to one point of the shell, may drown.

Next Tania Carter showed the blue tongued lizard, a member of the skink family.  Blue tongues are often mistaken for snakes. One way to check if it is a snake or lizard, is that lizards have ears, whereas snakes don't.

Blue tongues are great snail and slug killers and have adapted well to living with people.  They will often live in pipes.  However, they are at risk of being killed by cats or dogs.  If bird wire is placed over rockeries, the lizards can be provided with a safe refuge from these predators.  Blue tongues give birth to live babies.

Blue tounges will stick their toungues out and hiss as a defense. Just push them away with a broom.  If they happen to bite and won't let go simply put them on the ground and they usually let go.  Blue tongues love bananas, strawberries and dog food.

It is not a good idea to relocate lizards as they often are attacked and die before they are able to learn where to find food, shelter etc.

Tania's next companion was the legless lizard which is often mistaken for a snake.  Most of its body is its tail, so if it is grabbed and throws its tail it will take a long time for it to regrow.  Legless lizards love to eat spiders.

Tania Carter next passed around the Keel Backed snake.  This snake eats small toads and tadpoles.  It is a non-poisonous harmless nocturnal snake and very useful to have around.

Tania spent time talking about snakes.  Snakes get frightened, will take off or defend themselves if cornered or attacked.  The Eastern Brown is a highly strung dangerous snake that will readily defend itself.  When about to attack it rises in an S shape.  Safest  thing to do is to leave it alone.   The Red Bellied Black snake is a non aggessive snake and has an unjustified reputation for killing people.  Many bites are caused by people trying to kill snakes, who of course, are defending themselves. People believe that all brown snakes are deadly, but many harmless or non aggressive snakes are also brown.

A Children's Python was the next reptile.  Tania said that about 80% of roofs in Brisbane have a resident carpet snake.  These come in a variety of patterns and colours.  Carpet snakes, like all reptiles need to warm themselves in the sun.  When a carpet python lays eggs, it coils itself around the eggs to keep them warm.  If the eggs get cold, the python shivers to warm them up.  Carpet snakes eat rats, mice, possums and bats.  When little they usually eat other reptiles, but as they grow they eat more warm blooded animals.

The next very cool companion who was greeted with lots of oohs and aahs was Lucy the bettong.  Lucy is a Rufus Bettong.  They are small members of the kangaroo family.  They require a large area of habitat and are very shy.  They eat roots and spend their nights digging.  As they take a small amount of root of a number of different plants, they don't usually kill the plant.  However, if forced into a small area of habitat, they may end up killing their food source.  Tania emphasised the importance of providing habitat corridors.  The Rufus Bettong is not endangered, but the Northern Bettong from Northern Queensland only eats fungus and as its habitat is cleared it is becoming endangered.

Most species in Australia are lost to land clearing rather than feral animals.

Tania discussed how to remove babies from dead marsupials.  It is important when finding a dead marsupial with a baby in its pouch, not to pull the baby from the teat.  This can actually pull away the baby's mouth.  Either take baby and mum to the vet or sanctuary or cut the teat off.

The squirrel glider was next.  This glider and the smaller sugar glider are at great risk from predatory animals such as cats and dogs.  They also compete with other animals e.g. possums for holes in trees.  They are becoming endangered and urgently need trees and corridors to survive.  The gliders like to eat insects and fruit and they have a role in pollinating some species.  They love to eat sap also and signs that they may be on our land are lumps of sap on the tree trunks. These gliders usually give birth to twins. Nest boxes for squirrel gliders can be bought.  The entrance faces towards the tree for protection.  Unfortunately,  gliders are also the favourite food of owls.

Tawny Frogmouths are actually not owls, but night jars.  They lay eggs in the forks of trees and often their chicks end up on the ground.  These birds like lots of insects and catch moths in the air.  They have excellent camouflage and are hard to sea against the bark of trees.

The last guest was a monitor lizard.  Monitors are large lizards.  They lay their eggs in termite mounds, leave them to incubate and then comes back to open up the mound when the babies are due to hatch. Monitors have very sharp teeth.

Article published by Karana Downs Garden Club Inc.

Tania Carter - a friend to all of nature's creatures.

Albino Darwin Carpet Python

Morelia spilota variegata or the Carpet Python

Meet Tully. Tully is an albino Darwin Carpet Python. Tully's mum was found in a caravan park in Darwin about ten years ago. A resident of the caravan park saw Blondie one day. When the Parks and Wildlife Commission head about it they took Blondie to the Territory Wildlife Park. Albino animals are thought to be more visible to predators in the wild, so they are often caught and kept in captivity, carpet python is among them. Despite their supposedly more visible looks, adult albino animals are often found in the wild, showing that they can avoid predation and survive through to adulthood.

Albinism is widespread through the animal kingdom. All sorts of albino animals have been found - insects, fish, reptiles, birds, mammals, and more. An albino animal can't make melanin. Melanin is a dark pigment that is produced and stored in the skin. For instance, when you spend a lot of time in the sun you get a sun tan. The darker coloration of your skin is due to an increase in the amount of melanin. The genetic fault that prevents albinos from properly producing melanin is heritable, meaning that an albino adult carpet python can pass the albino gene onto its offspring.

Did you know...

• Albino animals are thought to be more visible to predators in the wild, so they are often caught and kept in captivity.
• An albino animal can't make melanin. Melanin is a dark pigment that is produced and stored in the skin. The genetic fault that prevents albinos from properly producing melanin is heritable, meaning that an albino adult can pass the albino gene onto its offspring.

Where Albino Darwin Carpet Python can be found in Australia:

Albinism is widespread through the animal kingdom, and the carpet python is no exception.

For Beginners

Guide to Pythons

by Andrew Owen

Pythons are increasing in popularity as pets in Australia and many species are now available. Keeping native species as pets is a good option ecologically and if the animals’ basic needs are met they can thrive in captivity. And so, the following discussions (guide to pythons) are strongly recommended.

Guide to Pythons: Housing

Pythons should be kept individually in a secure enclosure made from thermally efficient material (material that holds heat well like wood or plastic, not a glass fishtank). A glass front allows for viewing your animal. The diagram below illustrates a  basic python set up and minimal requirements for a healthy animal.

Guide to Pythons: Housing Hatchling/Juvenile Pythons

If you purchase a hatchling/juvenile python keep it in a “click-clack” (small, secure container) inside your enclosure until it is an appropriate size for the enclosure - this could be up to a year. Too many people get impatient and put their small python in an enclosure too early, only to have the animal escape through gaps around glass & vents, etc!

Guide to Pythons: Guide to enclosure size

	Guide to Pythons: Arboreal python (tree dwelling)	Guide to Pythons: Terrestrial python (ground dwelling)
Guide to Pythons: Length	¾ of snake length	length Length of snake
Width	½ of snake length	¾ of snake length
Height	Length of snake	½ of snake length

Guide to Pythons: Substrate

Choice of substrate (the material on the bottom of your enclosure) varies. Small gravel can look nice, but cleaning time is increased. Newspaper is hygienically and practically best but not as visually pleasing.

Guide to Pythons: Feeding

Before purchasing your python make sure it has been feeding on thawed mice or rats. You may think it is boring feeding your pet the same meal but a mouse or rat has all the nutrients needed. If a python is happily feeding don’t change things.

Juveniles should be fed every 7-10 days, slowly increasing the size of the meal as your python grows. Adults should be fed a meal around 20% of their body weight every 2nd week (possibly more in summer and less or no food in winter). Pythons are predominantly nocturnal so feeding after dark is best. If your python refuses a feed, don’t be alarmed. Some don’t eat when they are about to shed and some will go off food in winter.

Guide to Pythons: Drinking Water

Drinking water should be available at all times to your Python. Refrain from simply topping up the water bowl as much as possible. A couple of times a week, remove the water bowl, empty & clean the bowl thouroughly, then re-fill with fresh water.

Guide to Pythons: Shedding (Sloughing)

Pythons shed their skin every couple of months or so, more frequently as they are growing. A sign of a healthy python in a good environment is its shed. A good, whole skin shed signals correct humidity and health. If a shed comes off in patches perhaps more cage furnishing with rough sections are required and more humidity. Greater humidity can be achieved by increasing the size of the water bowl or occasional light spraying of the enclosure with water. Any retained shed, in particular on the eyes and tail tip, must be removed.

Guide to Pythons: Handling When a new animal is purchased, introduce it to its new home and leave it alone until it is feeding and comfortable in its surroundings. If your snake is about to shed (signaled by milky eyes) leave it alone until shedding is complete. The snake’s eye sight is poor at this time and handling is stressful. After a feed leave your python alone to digest its meal and if you usually feed your python at night it is advisable not to handle it at night.

	Arboreal python (tree dwelling)	Terrestrial python (ground dwelling)
Length	¾ of snake length	length Length of snake
Width	½ of snake length	¾ of snake length
Height	Length of snake	½ of snake length

Guide to Pythons for Beginners will make the task easy

Orange Snake Among Finds On Borneo

KUALA LUMPUR, Malaysia (AP) -- A lungless frog, a frog that flies, an orange snake, and a slug that shoots love darts are among 123 new species found in Borneo since 2007 in a project to conserve one of the oldest rain forests in the world.

A report by the global conservation group WWF on the discoveries also calls for protecting the threatened species (snakes among them) and equatorial rain forest on Borneo, the South China Sea island that is the world’s third-largest and is shared by Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei.

"The challenge is to ensure that these precious landscapes are still intact for future generations," said the report released Thursday.

The search for the new species was part of the Heart of Borneo project that started in February 2007 and is backed by the WWF and the three countries that share the island.

The aim is to conserve 85,000 square miles (220,000 square kilometers) of rain forest that was described by Charles Darwin as “one great luxuriant hothouse made by nature for herself.”

Explorers have been visiting Borneo for centuries, but vast tracts of its interior are yet to be biologically explored, said Adam Tomasek, leader of WWF’s Heart of Borneo project.

"If this stretch of irreplaceable rain forest can be conserved for our children, the promise of more discoveries must be a tantalizing one for the next generation of researchers to contemplate," he said.

The scientists’ discoveries include the world’s longest known stick insect at 56.7 centimeters, an orange snake (almost flame-colored) and a frog that flies and changes its skin and eye color. In total, 67 plants, 29 invertebrates, 17 fish, five frogs, three snakes and two lizards and a brand new species of bird were discovered, said the report.

Borneo has long been known as a hub for monster insects, including giant cockroaches about 4 inches (10 centimeters) long.

Notable among the species discovered are:

• - an orange snake that has a bright hue, almost flame-like, neck coloration that gradually fuses into an extraordinary iridescent and vivid blue, green and brown pattern. When threatened it flares its nape, revealing bright orange colors.
• - A frog that breathes through its skin because it has no lungs, which makes it appear flat. This aerodynamic shape allows the frogs to move swiftly in fast flowing streams. Although the species was discovered in 1978, it was only now that scientists found the frog has no lungs.
• - A high-altitude slug found on Mount Kinabalu that has a tail three times the length of its head. They shoot calcium carbonate “love darts” during courtship to inject a hormone into a mate. While resting, the slug wraps its long tail around its body.

The Heart of Borneo, the core island area the conservation effort targets, is home to ten species of primate, more than 350 birds, 150 reptiles (orange snake among them)and amphibians and a staggering 10,000 plants that are found nowhere else in the world, the report says.

VIJAY JOSHI Associated Press April 2010

Orange Snake

Boyd's Forest Dragon

Hypsilurus boydii or the Boyd's Forest Dragon

This forest dragon seems to have retained the appearance of a dinosaur, with both males and females having a dorsal crest of enlarged spines. Living in tropical coastal rainforests and tablelands from Townsville in the south and north to Mossman, they lead a fairly sedentary life. They can be found resting on the side of trees during the day, darting down to the ground to catch insects. This animal is one of the two species of forest dragon found in Australia, the other being the rainforest dragon of SE Queensland. Many more species of forest dragons are found in New Guinea and South East Asia.

Boyd's forest dragons possess excellent vision. This is relied upon in keeping a look out for insects, bugs and worms. The male of this species is very possessive of his territory, which leads to many scuffles with rival males. The dewlap (the flap of skin under the throat) is often displayed as a warning to one animal entering another's territory. Female Boyd's forest dragon lay on around 5 to 7 eggs per clutch, and a female may lay 3 clutches of eggs per season.

Did you know...

• This beautiful dragon seems to have retained the appearance of a dinosaur, with both males and females having a dorsal crest of enlarged spines.
• They can be found resting on the side of trees during the day, occasionally darting down to the ground to catch insects.
• The dewlap (the flap of skin under the throat) is often displayed as a warning to one animal entering another's territory.
• Female Boyd's forest dragons lay on around 5 to 7 eggs per clutch, and a female may lay 3 clutches of eggs per season.

Where in Australia Boyd's Forest Dragon thrives:

Male Forest Dragon can be very possessive of their territory, which leads to many scuffles with rival males.

Diamond Python

Morelia spilota spilota or the Diamond Python

Did you know...

• The diamond python have the most southerly distribution of any Australian python, reaching as far south as Victoria.
• Like all pythons, diamond python lays eggs which are then incubated and defended by the female. Once the young have emerged, the mum no longer cares for them.
• These pythons are ambush predators with large home ranges that often overlap. They move around seasonally to occupy well-camouflaged positions or hibernate in winter months.

Where Diamond Python can be found in Australia:

The diamond python is one of the subspecies in the diamond/carpet python group.

Doubly Endowed Lizard Discovered In Philippines

PARIS: Biologists have reported the discovery of a spectacular species of giant lizard, as long as a full-grown man is tall, and endowed with a double penis.

The secretive but brightly coloured monitor lizard is a closecousin of the komodo dragon of Indonesia. Unlike its relative, however, it neither kills to eat nor feasts on carrion. It is entirely peaceable and fruit-eating.

Dubbed Varanus bitatawa, the lizard measures two metres in length, says an account published by the Royal Society.

It was found in a river valley on northern Luzon in the Philippines, surviving loss of habitat and hunting by local people who use it for food.

How many of the lizards have survived is unclear. The species is almost certainly critically endangered, and might well have disappeared without being catalogued had not a large male specimen been rescued alive from a hunter last June.

Finding such a distinctive species in a heavily populated, highly deforested location ‘’comes as an unprecedented surprise’’, say the authors, writing in the journal Biology Letters.

The only comparable recent finds are the Kipunji monkey, which inhabits a tiny range of forest in Tanzania, and the Saola, a forest-dwelling bovine found only in Vietnam and Laos.

V. bitatawa has unique markings. Its scaly body and legs are a blue-black mottled with pale yellow-green dots, while its tail is marked in alternating segments of black and green.

Males have a double penis, called hemipenes, also found in some snakes and other lizards.

The two penises are often used in alternation, and sometimes contain spines or hooks that serve to anchor the male within the female during intercourse.

V. bitatawa has a relative in southern Luzon, V. olivaceus, but the species are separated by three river valleys and a gap of 150 kilometres and may never have met.

One reason the lizard has gone undetected, the researchers speculate, is that it never leaves the forests of its native Sierra Madre mountains.

The authors say it should become a "flagship species" for efforts to preserve the remaining forests of northern Luzon.

Agence France-Presse April 2010

Lizard

Bell Frog Thought To Be On Last Legs Spotted Alive And Kicking

A species of frog presumed extinct for nearly 30 years, a bell frog, has turned up in the Southern Tablelands.

In the world of amphibians, it is the equivalent of finding the Tasmanian tiger.

The yellow-spotted bell frog was once ubiquitous in the northern and southern tablelands of NSW, but was almost wiped out after the chytrid fungus arrived from Africa in the early 1970s.It was found alive and well in 2008 by government researcher Luke Pearce, who was searching for a native fish, the southern pygmy perch. Instead, he spotted the bell frog, which has distinctive markings on its groin and thighs.

But Mr Pearce had to wait until last October before he could return with David Hunter, the threatened species officer of the Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water, to confirm the finding.

"We heard this bell frog call," Mr Pearce said. "[We] went down looking for it and actually nearly stepped on it. It was quite amazing. This frog was just waiting there to be found."

In one stretch of stream on a farm in an unspecified part of the Southern Tablelands, an estimated 100 yellow-spotted bell frogs have been found. Six tadpoles have been taken to Taronga Zoo to establish a breeding program.

"If it has a predisposition to being resistant to this fungus, as opposed to having site attributes resulting in resistance, that will afford it much greater protection when we start putting it elsewhere," Dr Hunter said.

Michael McFadden, an amphibian keeper at Taronga Zoo, said the fungus had caused the loss of seven frog species in Australia. It was thought to have wiped out two species that have been found in the past few years.

In all, almost a quarter of the state’s frog species have been affected by the fungus, including 15 threatened varieties such as the green and golden bell frog, the corroboree frog and the spotted tree frog.

"Highland species of frogs crashed really hard," he said. Two years ago, the armoured mist frog of northern Queensland was found after not being seen since the early 1990s.

"This is the equivalent of discovering the Tasmanian tiger, in terms of amphibians, in terms of frogs," the NSW Environment Minister, Frank Sartor, said of the latest find.

BRIAN ROBINS Sydney Morning Herald March 2010

Bell Frog

Aspects of Snakebite and Snake Venom Properties

Snake Venom and Snakebites

by Andrew McKenzie (Originally published in Monitor Vol 13 Issue 1 2004)

Snake Venom: An Introduction

The following article has been written to explain what happens to a bite recipient if they suspect they have been bitten by a potentially venomous snake. The issues investigated are as follows;

i) How most bites occur, ii) What to do if bitten by a snake, iii) How venom affects the body, and; iv) Methodology in determining whether or not to administer antivenom

Snake Venom: How Most Bites Occur

Most snake bites involve the lower parts of the body, therefore, the lower leg and foot are commonly bitten. Some bites occur on the hands. Bites can occur when poking hands into hollow logs, under rocks or under common household or farmyard shelters such as sheets of tin. Bushwalking and walking through long grass are activities which can lead to people being bitten.

Other bites occur when people attempt to injure or kill a snake that they have encountered. The bottom line is that in the majority of cases of snakebite, the snake is only trying to defend itself. It should be noted that snakebite in domestic and farmyard animals is also a common occurrence (Mirtschin, et al. 1998), but the bitten animals again have in most situations provoked the bite by attacking the snake themselves.

Snake Venom: What To Do if Bitten by a Snake

The most important thing to do if bitten by a snake is to keep calm and encourage others to do so as well so that you can focus on application of first aid and seeking medical attention as soon a possible.

See the first aid description on the AVRU web site. The PI method is thought to slow the movement of lymph in the lymphatic system. This has never been proved but there is good evidence to support it. Snake venom is thought to move from the lymphatic system to the blood stream. There are some good references on this topic (see references I have included at end). What you should not do is wash or wipe the site where the bite is, as any venom on the skin surface is useful (but not critical).

If at all possible do not drive a vehicle as you may collapse and cause an accident. An ambulance or another driver is advised. Finally, do not use drugs or consume alcohol as the effects of these may mimic the symptoms of venom in the bloodstream leading to administration of an antivenom where it is not really required. Antivenom is only given if venom is detected, or in its absence, if systemic envenomation is indicated by the symptoms.

Snake Venom: How Venom Affects The Body

Venom can affect the body in a variety of ways.

In general, venom appears to be a mixture of enzymes and proteins that can act on several biochemical pathways or on a single physiological pathway within the body. The effects are characterised by:

Neurotoxins:- which inactivate the nerve and smooth muscle function of the body by upsetting the sodium (Na+)and potassium (K+) channels required for neurotransmission and cardiac function. There are also ion channel blockers and inhibitors.

Cytotoxins:- which affect the cells that come in contactwith the venom, either at the bite site or in the blood.

Hemotoxins:- can either be toxins which affect haemostasis in some way (those that activate the clotting cascade, or inhibit its activation). Also there are toxins which cause haemorrhage (act on the blood vessels) and toxins that alter the shape of red blood cells.

Myotoxins:- are toxins which break down muscle cells. They are usually PLA type molecules. Myoglobin from the muscle cells leaks into the blood and can cause myoglobinuria.

The chemical proteins and enzymes that have been identified so far are:

• L-arginine ester hydrolases, which breakdown the bodies amino acids.
• Hyaluroniclase, which effects the hyaluronic acid production vital for connective tissue in the body.
• L-amino acid oxidase, which also breakdown the bodies amino acids.
• Cholinesterases destroy or block acetylcholine thus interfering with neurotransmission.
• Phospholipases, which destroys phospholipids essential for cell walls.
• Ribo and deoxyribonucleic oxidases, essential for the manufacturing of genetic material in the body.
• ATPases, essential for energy production of cells within the body.

Snake Venom: Methodology in Determining Antivenom Treatment

As a medical scientist, one of my duties is to perform the venom identification testing on specimens, both animal and human, so that the correct antivenom treatment can be administered or in the case of livestock, insurance claims can be processed.

At present, the Commonwealth Serum Laboratory (CSL) manufacture the only detection kit that is a rapid Enzymic Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) that takes approximately 25 minutes to perform. The kit is useful in identifying the correct antivenom to use in snake bites in Australia and Papua New Guinea. Specimens can be collected via bite site swabs in urine, blood or bodily tissue. In the detection process as a medical scientist, I have found that urine specimens are more accurate than blood as red cells from whole blood can give false positive readings if the reaction wells are not fully washed properly during the wash stage of the kit. Swabs may detect venom but envenomation may not necessarily have occurred.

It is very important not to administer antivenom until venom has been detected, and the correct monovalent, i.e. serotype specific antivenom, can be administered. If the patient has been bitten and clearly showing signs of envenomation, a multipurpose polyvalent antivenom can be used. If identification is to be delayed, however, there may be some adverse effects. Dosages are usually required in higher amounts.

The kit categories include five monovalent antivenoms each of which contain a number of snake venoms that the antivenom neutralises. These are as follows:-

Tiger Snake: intended to neutralise Tiger Snake (Notechis scutatus), Copperhead (Austrelaps superbus), Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus), and the Clarence River or Rough Scaled Snake (Tropidechis carinatus). Brown Snake: intended to neutralise Brown Snake (Pseudonaja textilis), Dugite (Pseudonaja affinis), and the Gwardar (Pseudonaja nuchalis).

Black Snake: intended to neutralise King Brown or Mulga Snake (Pseudechis australis), Papuan Black Snake (Pseudechis papuanis), and the Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).

Death Adder: intended to neutralise Death Adder (Acanthophis antarcticus), and the Desert Death Adder (Acanthophis pyrrhus).

Taipan: intended to neutralise Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus) and the Small Scaled or Fierce Snake (Oxyuranus microlepidotus).

The principal of the test is that a colour change will develop in a ‘well’ of the required antivenom thus allowing the choice of a specific monovalent antivenom.

Antivenom is made by administering horse blood with snake venom in small amounts, which causes an immunological response by the blood to develop antibodies against the venom. The serum proportion of blood is then separated and freeze-dried. The product is reconstituted (liquefied) prior to use.

Snake Venom: References:

Bohinski, R.C. (1987), Modern concepts in Biochemistry, 5th Edition, Allyn & Bacon Inc, Massachusetts, USA. Brazaitis, P. & Watanabe, M.E. (1992), Snakes of the world, Michael Friedman Publishing Group, New York, USA. Curtis, H. (1983), Biology, 4Ih Edition, Worth Publishers inc, New York, USA. Ehmann, H. (1992), Encyclopedia of Australian Animals; Reptiles, Angus & Robertson Publishers Pty Ltd, Sydney, Australia. Rang, H.P., Dale, M.M., & Ritter, J.M.(1993), Pharmacology, 3rd Edition, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, Scotland. Shine, R. (1994), Australian Snakes a natural history, Revised Edition, Reed Books, Chatswood, Australia. Slater, P. (1997), Amazing Facts about Australian Frogs and Reptiles, discover and learn, vol4, Steve Parish Publishing Pty Ltd, Fortitude Valley, Australia. Snake Venom Detection Kit; (kit insert), (1999), CSL Biosciences Department, Parkville, Australia. Mirtschin,P. J., Masci, P., Paton, D. C., Kuchel, T. (1998). Snake bites recorded by veterinary practices in Australia. Aust Vet J. 76: 3 195-1 98 Sutherland, S.K. (1992). Deaths from snake bite in Australia, 1981 -1 991. Med. J. Aust.. 157: 740-746 Sutherland, S. K. (1991). Snake Bites Patient Management Guide ERR: 62-63 Sutherland, S. K. (1990). Treatment of snake bite. Aust. Family Physician. 19: 1 1-1 3 Sutherland, S. K. (1974). Venomous Australian creatures: The action of their toxins and the care of the envenomated patient. Anaesth. Intens. Care. 11 :4: 31 6-328 Sutherland, S. (1983). First aid management of snakebite. Med. J. Aust. Feb 5: 106. Sutherland S. K., Duncan, A. W. (1980). New first-aid measures for envenomation. Med. J. Aust. April 19: 378- 379. Sutherland, S. K., Coulter, A. R., Harris, R. D. (1979). Rationalization of first-aid measures for Elapid  snakebite. The Lancet . Jan. 27: 183-1 86

Snake Venom

Night Skink

Egernia striata or the Night Skink

Did you know...

• Night skink reptiles are one of the few nocturnal members of the skink family.
• The night skink live in the deserts of the Northern Territory and Western Australia.
• The night skink dig complex burrow systems in sand, with the entrance normally concealed near a low shrub.
• Baby night skink reptiles often stay in or near their parents' burrow.
• The night skink lie in wait at the burrow's entrance and ambush passing invertebrates, such as insects and spiders, and smaller lizards.

Where to find the Night Skink in Australia:

Night Skink

First Genetic Link Between Reptile and Human Heart Evolution

Scientists at the Gladstone Institute of Cardiovascular Disease have traced the evolution of the four-chambered human heart to a common genetic factor linked to the development of hearts in turtles and other reptile species.

The research, published in the September 3 issue of the journal Nature, shows how a specific protein that turns on genes is involved in heart formation in turtles, lizards and humans.

“This is the first genetic link to the evolution of two, rather than one, pumping chamber in the heart, which is a key event in the evolution of becoming warm-blooded,” said Gladstone investigator Benoit Bruneau, PhD, who led the study. “The gene involved, Tbx5, is also implicated in human congenital heart disease, so our results also bring insight into human disease.”

From an evolutionary standpoint, reptile occupies a critical point in heart evolution.

While bird and mammalian hearts have four chambers, frogs and other amphibians have three. “How did hearts evolve from three to four chambers?” Bruneau said. “The different reptile species offer a sort of continuum from three to four chambers. By examining them, we learned a lot about how the human heart chambers normally form.”

He explained that with four chambers—two atria and two ventricles—humans and all other mammals have completely separate blood flows to the lungs and to the rest of the body, which is essential for us to be warm-blooded.

When it comes to reptile species, such as turtles and lizards, there is debate about whether they have one or two ventricles, which are the pumping chambers. “The main question for us to understand the evolution of the heart was to identify the true nature of these early reptile ventricles and to figure out what controls the separation of the heart into left and right sides,” said Dr. Bruneau.

To better understand reptile heart evolution, Dr. Bruneau’s team used modern molecular genetics to examine Tbx5. Mutations in the human gene that encodes Tbx5 result in congenital heart disease and, in particular, defects in the ventricular septum, the muscular wall that separates the ventricle into two sections. Tbx5 is a transcription factor, a protein that turns other genes on or off. In humans and other mammals, Tbx5 levels are high in the left ventricle and low in the right. The boundary of high and low levels is right where the septum forms to divide the ventricle into two parts. “Based on these observations,” said Dr. Bruneau, “we thought Tbx5 was a good candidate as a key player in the evolution of septation.”

The team looked at Tbx5 distribution in the turtle and the green anole lizard. During the early stages of heart formation in both reptiles, Tbx5 activity is found throughout the embryonic ventricular chamber. In the lizard, which forms only one ventricle, this pattern stays the same as the heart develops. However, in the turtle, which has a primitive septum that partially separates the ventricles into left and right sides, distribution of Tbx5 is later gradually restricted to the area of the left ventricle, resulting in a leftright gradient of Tbx5 activity. This meant that the gradient of Tbx5 forms later and less sharply in the turtle than in species with a clear septum, such as mammals, providing a tantalizing clue about how septation evolved.

They then wanted to determine whether Tbx5 was really a main regulator of septation or merely a bystander. Mice were genetically engineered to express Tbx5 at a moderate level throughout the developing heart, just like in turtle hearts. By mimicking the turtle pattern, mouse hearts now resembled turtle hearts. The offspring from these mice died young and had only a single ventricle. This striking result conclusively showed that a sharp line delineating an area of high level of Tbx5 is critical to induce formation of a septum between the two ventricles.

“This really nailed the importance of Tbx5 in patterning the heart to allow septation to occur,” said Dr. Bruneau.

During evolution, new genetic regulatory elements evolved to tell the Tbx5 gene to form a sharp boundary of Tbx5 expression. This resulted in two ventricles. Researchers will now work to identify those genetic regulatory mechanisms during the evolution of reptiles. The work also has important implications for the understanding of congenital heart defects, which are the most common human birth defect, occurring in one out of every one hundred births worldwide. Humans born with only one pumping chamber, resembling frog hearts, suffer the highest mortality and require extensive surgery as newborns.

“Our study provides exciting new insights into the evolution of the heart, which had not been examined in over 100 years,” Dr. Bruneau explained. “In a larger context, it provides good support for the concept that changes in the expression levels of various regulatory molecules are important in evolution. From these studies we also hope to understand further how defects in septation occur in humans with congenital heart disease.”

Reptile

Woma Husbandry and Captive Breeding

Woma breeding: INTRODUCTION

by Peter Krauss (Originally published in Thylacinus in 1992. Reprinted in Monitor Vol 6 Issue 1 1994)

The Woma (Aspidites ramsayi) inhabits arid areas of the central and northern parts of Australia. At least two quite distinctive different forms of colouration and size occur in varying latitudes. Typically different examples are those from northern South Australia and those of the Tanami Desert in the Northern Territory. The northern form is cream with orange-brown bands, while the southern form is a uniform and drab brown colour. The northern Desert Woma reaches approximately 1.5m in length as an adult and the southern area form grows to double this size. Visually they bear little similarity as mature specimens.

A group of Womas in my care for over 16 years initially consisted of one male and two females with another male included later after the first successful breeding occurred in 1985. The animals are the desert form found in the Tennant Creek area of the Northern Territory, and were juveniles when obtained.

Woma breeding: FEEDING

As adults the male specimen measured 1.4m in length and weighed 1300g, while the females were 1.5m long and weighed 2000g and 2300g respectively. Food was always accepted readily and consisted mainly of laboratory rats, either freshly killed or defrosted. During a period some years ago, young goslings were available and the male especially preferred this change to his diet. No food was offered during winter and feeding was strictly controlled and monitored during the warmer months. Obesity is not healthy and is definitely to be avoided if the animals are to breed. Feeding is always supervised to avoid accidental cannibalism. Proper feeding is important in woma breeding.

Woma breeding: HOUSING

Over the years the Womas occupied several different cages. Being a terrestrial snake, the cage should be low and reasonably spacious. My Womas occupied a cage of 2m x 1m x 0.5m high with a removable dividing partition in the middle. The front was made of sliding glass panels, and the sides and back of peg board to provide ample ventilation. The top and floor were constructed of industrial plywood. As a substrate for the floor of the cage I found bark chips most suitable. These should be a medium grade and not dusty. A depth of 80-100mm as covering on the floor provided best.

Outside the mating season from August to April, I kept the male and females apart by dividing the cage into two sections. Feeding is also more easily supervised in this way. Each cage has its own hide box, a most important feature in any snake cage, and to completely fulfill its objective it must be correctly sized. When coiled up in this retreat, the python’s body should touch at least two opposite sides of the box, so that it feels secure. If two snakes occupy the cage, the hide box naturally needs to accommodate both specimens. The floor of the box is covered with paper to facilitate easy cleaning. This is an important factor to a successful woma breeding.

In addition the floor of each cage section has a cover which can be placed on top of the bark chips. This cover is constructed of wood and masonite and measures 800mm x 400mm x 100mm high. It is closed on three sides allowing access through one open narrow side. The snakes spend a great deal of time under these covers resting and keeping out of sight.

Each cage section has a 20 watt Vita-Lite lamp which is fitted to the back wall of the cage, approximately 200mm up from the floor. The hide box is also mounted to the rear inside wall of the cage and immediately above the light. Thus the warmth from the light heats the floor of the hide box and its close proximity to the floor provides ideal conditions for the effectiveness of the ultra-violet output of the light when the snake lays under it. As an additional heat source, each cage section is fitted with a 14 watt electrical heat pad which provides warmth for about 25% of the floor area. A successful woma breeding requires a sufficient space allocation.

Light and heating is controlled by a time clock without a thermostat installed. During the months of April to August, at least on alternate days, all Womas were exposed to a 300 watt Osram Ultra-violet Sunlamp. This light is fitted on a tripod and can be directed at the snake after sliding the glass panel aside. Exposure time is only about 5-10 minutes at a distance of about 600mm from the snake. This procedure has the added benefit of showing off the snake in the ver bright light and thus allowing a thorough visual inspection and examination.

Each cage section has a water container large enough for the Womas to lay in, but over many years I have never seen a Woma soak in water. Every 2-3 days the cage is sprayed with water and oftern it is then that the snakes drink directly from the nozzle of the pressure spray. Regular spraying of the substrate with water reduces the dust. Naturally the bark chips should be just slightly moist but never wet. Faeces, urine and sloughs are removed regularly.

The construction of the building containing the snake cages was such that it provided ultimate climatic conditions. During the hottest time of the year all heating was turned off and lighting was provided for only about three hours in the morning. The metal roof of the building had skylight panels built into approximately 15% of its area and thus the room becomes very hot.

During the summer months I had the roof covered with shade cloth and if necessary a sprinkler system on the roof was turned on. Temperatures range from 24°C minimum at night to 43°C maximum during the day. These temperature conditions reflected the climate experienced in my home district at the northern end of the Atherton Tablelands, approximately 60km inland from Cairns in north Queensland.

Woma breeding: HOW TO BREED

Usually during the first week of May I removed the cage divider to allow animals to be together. In most recent years when the young second male had reached well over one metre in length and weighed approximately 1200g, the older male, its father, frequently attempted to copulate with it.

Cloacae were pressed together in the usual way but no insertion of hemipenis was observed. There actions looked so realistic that I was prompted to check again that they were both males. Usually mating by the original male with one of the females occurred within hours of the divider being removed and lasted 6-8 hours. The male would then coil up by himself away from the females. At 38 months of age the young male was apparently not sexually mature, because it never showed sexual interest in the females. The adult male would always service both females, however, he seemed to favour one or the other at various times. When this was noticed I usually controlled access in order to ensure fertilization of both females.

If you're into woma breeding, you should know that these snakes are at times biennial breeders but there does not seem to be a regular pattern to this behaviour. Females seem to engage in mating activities with the male every year, but do not regularly develop eggs. They may breed in two consecutive years and then miss a year.

Each time a copulation with insertion of the hemipenis was clearly observed and noted I separated the male from the females again. After about 48 hours, reintroduction usually resulted in immediate mating once again. Copulation took place regularly from the first week in May until the first week in July. By this time very careful examination of the female Womas usually revealed egg development. Just by holding the snake and allowing it to move from one hand to the other with fingertips held against the belly, I was able to detect eggs forming.

One month later, if the female was gravid, egg shapes were visible. By early September the gravid Woma would rest with two thirds of her body either on its side or completely upside down. At this stage I provided an additional heat source with a 40 watt spotlight which was operated by time clock for three hours each morning. Particularly during the last weeks prior to egg laying the gravid snakes would often bask under this light for lengthy periods of time. I consider such a basking facility very important for the healthy development of the eggs. The female at this stage rests with her body partially upside down most of the day - and always at night the eggs had moved down to the lower part of the body.

As the latter half of September approached a site was selected by the female and prepared for egg laying. This usually happened under the cover on the floor of the cage. The snake started hollowing out a spot in the bark chips by moving her body in a circular motion. She moved all the bark chips aside and eventually rested on the cage floor. During the last days the female could often be heard thrashing with her body under the covers as she moved in a circular and concentric motion.

The eggs were usually laid during the last week in September. The other female was often one month later with her developments. Egg numbers ranged from 8-10 and fertility was 90-100%. The process of actually laying the eggs took the female 2.5-3 hours with a clutch of eight eggs. Eggs averaged 85gm in weight and 78mm in length. In clutches of ten eggs weight and size were marginally less. The eggs were removed as they were laid for the purposes of incubation in an electric incubator. This was done after each individual egg had dried and before it became attached to another egg orto any substrate matter.

My incubator was a modified Swan poultry incubator. It had an extra backup thermostat fitted and it featured a small electronic fan for air distribution. I am incubating most reptile eggs by the no-substrate method and find this the best way for my purposes. Eggs are placed on paper towelling on top of a mesh grid of plastic or stainless steel which is suspended over water, approximately 20-30mm deep, in a plastic container. This plastic container is fitted with an air tight lid which is transparent for easy observation of the eggs. Whilst I found it unnecessary to ever open the egg boxes, I did on occasions open the lid briefly and even changed the paper once or twice during the incubation period. This method maintains a steady 100% humidity at all times.

Experiments have shown that healthy embryos will survive and hatch even if bad and decaying eggs have not been removed. This seems especially remarkable if the container remains sealed during the entire incubation time. If all is well and the fan in the incubator functions constantly there should be very little or no condensation on the inside walls and lid of the egg boxes. If at any time an egg shows the typical signs of being dead it is advisable to remove it. This is no problem if eggs are harvested singularly and placed separately in the plastic box. If this is not possible and the eggs are in a clutch, where all are attached, it is wiser to leave a spoiled egg rather than risking damage to other eggs by trying to remove it.

At a temperature of 29-30° C, hatching started on the 75th day, however at 31° C, hatching began on the 60th day. The average weight of the neonates was 45gm and their length was 320mm. The young snakes slough for the first time after 10-12 days. They feed readily on pup mice and are best kept separately for better supervision and record keeping.

Woma breeding: CONCLUSION

The Woma is a snake which demands a lot of attention from its keeper. Working with this interesting python has been most gratifying over the years. My plans for second generation breeding, maternal incubation etc, will not be possible. Due to unfortunate circumstances these animals are no longer in my care.

Woma breeding: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To Malcolm Thompson for converting my scribbled notes into readable English and Brian Barnett and Simon Kortlang for reading the manuscript and making valuable suggestions. My former associates and partners Margit and Karin Cianelli made it possible to work with these animals in the first place and provided expert help over many years. Cam Whiteing skilfully drew the original sketches and Amy Andersen kindly typed the various drafts.

Woma breeding

Coastal Carpet Python

Morelia spilota mcdowelli or the Coastal Carpet Python

Perhaps Australia's best-known python, the name Carpet Python actually refers to a number of different subspecies, each found in a separate geographic location. Coastal carpet python snakes are probably the most common snake found in and around Brisbane. They do an excellent job of keeping the rat population down. Adult carpet snakes can get up to 4 metres long. At this size they feed on large possums, and maybe even unwary cats.

During the mating season, several males will often aggregate around a single female and fight with each other to see who gets to mate with her. Female coastal carpet Python lay from 5 to 50 eggs, with larger females laying proportionately more eggs. As with other Australian pythons, the female will curl around her eggs mass while the eggs are incubating, but will not care for the young after they've hatched. The row of pits on the lower jaw are heat sensitive organs, enabling the python to sense warm-blooded prey in total darkness.

Did you know...

• The coastal carpet python is probably the most common snake found in and around Brisbane.
• Adult carpet snakes can get up to 4 metres long. At this size they feed on large possums, and maybe even unwary cats.
• During the mating season, several males will often aggregate around a single female and fight with each other to see who gets to mate with her.
• Female carpet python lay from 5 to 50 eggs, with larger females laying more eggs.
• As with other Australian pythons, the female will curl around her eggs mass while the eggs are incubating, but will not care for the young after they've hatched.

Where do theCoastal Carpet Python dwell in Australia:

Coastal Carpet Python

Land Mullet

Egernia major or the Land Mullet

These beautiful black lizards will often be found basking on walking tracks in the rainforested areas of central coast NSW to the border ranges of South East Queensland. The land mullet is one of the largest skinks in Australia, growing to a maximum length of 45 cm. As young animals, they have blue, white or yellow dots on their flanks. The adult animals retain a white eyeliner, which accentuates their large, knowing eyes.

They are a fairly secretive animal, preferring to forage close to ground cover such as vines, fallen logs, and vegetation. The family group of the land mullet will often consist of a pair of adults and several young of varying ages up to sexual maturity. All these young animals will be offspring of the adult pair, and will be encouraged to leave the group when they reach maturity. The female land mullet gives birth to live young, with about 4 babies being be born. These babies then stay with the mother, who will not give birth for another two years.

The land mullet eats a variety of foods, with the majority of their diet being vegetarian. Wild mushrooms are always a favourite!

Did you know...

• The land mullet is one of the largest skinks in Australia, growing to about 60 cm.
• The family group of the land mullet will often consist of a pair of adults and several young of varying ages up to sexual maturity which will be encouraged to leave the group when they reach maturity.
• These beautiful, black, glossy lizards will often be found basking on walking tracks in the rainforested areas from central coast NSW to the border ranges of South East Queensland.
• The female land mullet gives birth to live young, with about 4 babies being be born. These babies then stay with the mother, who will not give birth for another two years.

Where to find Land Mullets in Australia:

Land Mullet